MATERNAL ENCOURAGEMENT IN NONHUMAN-PRIMATES AND THE QUESTION OF ANIMAL TEACHING

Most putative cases of teaching in nonhuman animals involve parent-off spring interactions. The interpretation of these cases, particularly w ith regard to the cognitive processes involved, is controversial. Qual itative and quantitative observations made in nonhuman primates sugges t that, in some species, mothers encourage their infants' independent locomotion and that encouragement can be considered a form of instruct ion. In macaques, experience in raising previous offspring accounts in part for variability between mothers in propensity to encourage infan t motor skills. Parsimony suggests that the cognitive mechanisms under lying maternal encouragement of infant locomotion in primates as well. as some other putative cases of animal teaching may involve first-ord er intentionality (i.e., goal-directed behavior) and not higher cognit ive processes such as attribution of knowledge/ignorance or perspectiv e-taking. Encouragement of infant independent locomotion early in life may have benefits to mothers later on, in terms of reduction of costs of infant carrying, earlier infant weaning, and increased probability of reproduction in the mating season. The elementary forms of teachin g observed in nonhuman primates may have played an important role in t he origin and evolution of human culture.