The complex problem of refraction in collisionally pumped x-ray lasers
is examined through a three-dimensional ray-tracing code, used as a p
ost-processor to a 1 1/2-dimensional hydro/atomic code, to generate ex
perimentally observable beam characteristics such as divergence and ou
tput intensity, A detailed description of the model is presented. Resu
lts from the model are compared with a series of experiments carried o
ut at Rutherford Appleton Laboratories (RAL), where germanium slab tar
gets of lengths 0.9-2.2 cm were irradiated. Good agreement between the
ory and experiment is found.