SEXUAL COERCION IN ANIMAL SOCIETIES

In a wide range of animal species, males coerce females to mate with t hem, either by physically forcing them to mate, by harassing them unti l they mate or by punishing persistent refusal to mate. The first sect ion of this paper argues that the possibility of forced copulation can generate arms races between males and females that may have substanti al costs to both sexes. In the second section, it is suggested that se xual harassment commonly represents a 'war of attrition' between the s exes; existing game theory models that may apply to sexual conflict ov er mating decisions are reviewed. The third section develops a simple prospective model for the evolution of intimidation by punishment in s ituations where males can raise the probability that females will acce pt their advances in future by punishing them for refusal to mate. Whe re the benefits of sexual coercion to males are high, all three male s trategies may develop to a point where they have substantial costs to females. In the final section, evidence that female behaviour is adapt ed to minimizing these costs is reviewed.