A population-based twin study of self-esteem and gender

Background. Self-esteem (SE), a widely used construct in the social science s, is usually conceptualized as a reflection of socialization and interpers onal experiences that may differ considerably between the genders. Methods. The Rosenberg self-esteem scale was assessed at personal interview in both members of 3793 unselected twin pairs (1517 male-male, 856 female- female and 1420 male-female) from the population-based Virginia Twin Regist ry. Gender effects on SE were assessed by both analysis of variance and bio metrical twin modelling. Results. The mean SE score was slightly but significantly lower in women nu . men, and in women who grew up with a male nu. a female co-twin. Twin mode lling suggested that: (i) individual differences in self-esteem in both men and women were best explained by genetic and individual-specific environme nt factors; (ii) heritability estimates were similar in women (32 %) and in men (29 %); and (iii) the same genetic factors that influenced SE in women also influenced SE in men. Analyses supported the validity of the equal en vironment assumption for SE. The heritability of SE cannot be explained by the moderate correlation between SE and symptoms of depression. Conclusions. These results are inconsistent with prominent gender-related a etiological models for SE, which postulate that individual differences aris e from socialization experiences both within and outside the home of origin which differ widely for the two genders. Instead, a significant proportion of the population variance in SE is due to genetically-influenced temperam ental variables that are the same in men and women.