Changing self-esteem in children and adolescents: A meta-analytic review

Conducted a meta-analytic review of 116 studies, which indicated significan t improvement in children's and adolescents' self-esteem and self-concept, and significant concomitant changes in behavioral, personality, and academi c functioning. Interventions specifically focused on changing self-esteem a nd self-concept were significantly more effective (mean effect size = 0.57) than programs focused on another target, such as behavior or social skills (0.10). Treatment programs were also more effective (0.47) than primary pr evention programs (0.09) in changing self-esteem. Four variables emerged as significant predictors of self-esteem outcomes: 2 methodological features (type of design and control group), the use of a theoretical or empirical r ationale, and the type of program (treatment or prevention). Future researc h needs to examine the causal connection between changes occurring in self- esteem and other areas of adjustment, assess intervention success for diffe rent ethnic groups and for children of different ages and sex, and determin e the long-term impact of interventions.