Conducted a meta-analytic review of 116 studies, which indicated significan
t improvement in children's and adolescents' self-esteem and self-concept,
and significant concomitant changes in behavioral, personality, and academi
c functioning. Interventions specifically focused on changing self-esteem a
nd self-concept were significantly more effective (mean effect size = 0.57)
than programs focused on another target, such as behavior or social skills
(0.10). Treatment programs were also more effective (0.47) than primary pr
evention programs (0.09) in changing self-esteem. Four variables emerged as
significant predictors of self-esteem outcomes: 2 methodological features
(type of design and control group), the use of a theoretical or empirical r
ationale, and the type of program (treatment or prevention). Future researc
h needs to examine the causal connection between changes occurring in self-
esteem and other areas of adjustment, assess intervention success for diffe
rent ethnic groups and for children of different ages and sex, and determin
e the long-term impact of interventions.