Imaging studies of the pelvic floor

A variety of imaging modalities complement the history and physical examina tion in the investigation of pelvic floor dysfunction in women. Current flu oroscopic techniques, including defocography, can reveal underlying pelvic floor defects by reproducing normal daily activities that cause symptoms. M agnetic resonance imaging provides fine musculoskeletal detail of this regi on in anatomic plane not well seen via computerized tomography. Ultrasound is used primarily in assessment of the anal sphincter muscles. Cystourethro scopy provides direct visualization of the lower urinary tract. This articl e describes the clinical applications and technique of each modality.