Prevalence differences in depression among males and females: Are there evolutionary explanations?

Differences in male-female prevalence rates of depression are interpreted i n evolutionary perspective. Three evolutionary hypotheses are evaluated: (a ) depression represents an evolved strategy to deal with adverse social int eractions, particularly among partners, (b) depression has self-preservativ e and manipulative features, and (c) depression is a consequence of failing to achieve biological goals. While chest hypotheses are not necessarily mu tually exclusive, evolutionary explanations often suffer from not specifyin g which hypothesis is primary and which are secondary. We argue that failin g to achieve biological goals is primary and that evolved strategies and se lf-preservative and manipulative behaviour are secondary. Findings pointing to depression-contributing features of male-female differences, asymmetrie s in male-female relationships and male-female differences associated with reproduction are discussed to support our view that evolutionary explanatio ns can adequately account for a significant percentage of the reported prev alence differences.