M. Viitasalo et al., Predation vulnerability of planktonic copepods: consequences of predator foraging strategies and prey sensory abilities, MAR ECOL-PR, 175, 1998, pp. 129-142
We investigated the vulnerability of 2 copepod species (Eurytemora affinis
and Temora longicornis) to predation by predators with different foraging m
odes, three-spined stickleback Gasterosteus aculeatus juveniles and mysid s
hrimps Neomysis integer. Copepods were videofilmed escaping from predators
and from an artificial flow field, and the results were used in a model of
hydrodynamic disturbance generated by a predator. The copepods detected mys
ids from a significantly larger distance than they detected sticklebacks (0
.45 and 0.24 cm, respectively). Consequently, the capture success of the st
icklebacks was higher than that of mysids. In the case of sticklebacks fora
ging on E. affinis, copepod reaction distance was significantly correlated
with stickleback approaching speed; sticklebacks captured a copepod only if
they were able to slowly approach to within a strike distance of <0.1 cm f
rom the prey. Also, there was a major difference between the vulnerabilitie
s of the 2 prey species: the capture success of sticklebacks was 92 % with
T. longicornis and 53 % with E. affinis. This corresponded with experiments
with artificial flow, where the threshold fluid velocity gradient elicitin
g an escape response in copepods was 4 times higher in T. longicornis than
in E. affinis (8.2 and 2.1 s(-1), respectively). The hydrodynamic model acc
urately predicted the positive relationship between stickleback approaching
speed and copepod reaction distance, as well as the difference between the
2 copepod species. This suggests that, by using simple artificial flow exp
eriments, we can rank various zooplankton species according to their escape
capabilities, and thus predict their vulnerability to predation by small f
ish with different motility patterns. In contrast, the model did not confor
m with observations on mysids. Apparently, the hydrodynamic disturbance cre
ated by a mysid is not related to its swimming speed, but to some other fac
tor, such as the beat rate of swimming appendages.