Emerging noninvasive biochemical measures to predict cardiovascular risk

New predictors of cardiovascular events are needed to improve the accuracy of risk stratification. Such predictors should be easily measurable in the population and potentially modifiable. This review reports on new biomarker s that are closely linked to the pathogenic mechanisms underlying the progr ession of the atherosclerotic plaque leading to rupture and thrombosis that ultimately precipitate acute clinical events, such as stroke and myocardia l infarction. These risk factors have been associated with subclinical or c linical cardiovascular disease in large populations and include markers of lipoprotein and lipid metabolism, vitamin Bit metabolism, fibrinolysis, coa gulation, inflammation, infection, endothelial dysfunction, the angiotensin system, and oxidative stress. For other key processes of atherosclerosis a nd cardiac disease, such as apoptosis or programmed cell death, there are c urrently no markers that can be measured noninvasively. Atherosclerosis is a multifactorial condition and possibly only a subset of factors are the ma in determinants of disease in a given patient. A better definition of the c ardiovascular risk profile will help to better target primary and secondary prevention. Further epidemiological studies are seeded to characterize the actual predictive and clinical value of these new emerging cardiovascular biomarkers.