1, The long-term effects of small-scale spatial heterogeneity of livestock
grazing on vegetation dynamics were studied with a grid-based model of majo
r life forms of savanna vegetation. Based on southern Kalahari ecology, the
model includes stochastic life-history variables, resource competition for
soil water, and biomass production for annuals, perennial grasses and shru
bs.
2, Grazed at individual severities, the model's 25 m(2) grid cells defined
the spatial scale of heterogeneity. Different scenarios of grazing heteroge
neity were generated by modifying distributional and behavioural features o
f the grazing model. Simulations were run over 50 years under moderate to h
igh constant stocking rates.
3, Results confirmed a previously reported threshold response of shrub cove
r increase: under moderate grazing pressure, little change in shrub cover o
ccurred; when grazing pressure exceeded a threshold, shrub cover increased
drastically.
4. Under moderate or high stocking rates, grazing heterogeneity did not mod
ify grazing effects. However, within an intermediate range of stocking rate
s, small-scale heterogeneity determined the long-term impact of grazing. In
particular, utilization intensity at the threshold of shrub cover increase
was 60% less under high compared to low local grazing heterogeneity.
5, Sensitivity of vegetation dynamics to local grazing heterogeneity was al
so exemplified under a landscape-scale grazing gradient as observed at wate
ring points: at a given utilization intensity, a wide zone of increased shr
ub cover occurred under large local grazing heterogeneity, while under the
least heterogeneous grazing only a narrow zone of slightly increased shrub
cover occurred.
6. Because of the slow progress of shrub cover increase, a mismatch of mana
gement and ecological time scales was diagnosed and its implications for ma
nagement are discussed.
7. We conclude that knowledge of local grazing heterogeneity is crucial for
correct assessment of livestock impact on vegetation dynamics, Consequentl
y, management aiming at sustainable land use should account for spatial gra
zing aspects. These poorly understood aspects form a gap to be filled by bo
th empirical and theoretical studies.