Wolf and dog depredation on livestock in central Italy

We investigated wolf (Canis lupus)- and dog-livestock conflicts (1992-1995) and costs of compensation (1991-1995) in the Tuscany region of central Ita ly. The regional indemnity program cost US $345,000 (+/- 93,000 SD) annuall y. Most depredations (95.2%) involved sheep, with a mean (+/- SD) annual lo ss of 2,550 +/- 730 sheep, or 0.35% of the regional stock. Sheep lost to pr edators by province were correlated with sheep density within areas contain ing wolves (r(s) = 0.88, n = 9, P = 0.0015), but marked geographical and te mporal fluctuations were reported in compensation costs. Highest levels of conflict were observed in the provinces at the border of the regional wolf range, where livestock was left unattended most of the year and sheep densi ty reached its highest regional levels. Based on 527 reports of approved cl aims during 1992-1995 from the National Health System, depredations were hi ghly seasonal, increasing steadily from spring to early fall, possibly foll owing trends in sheep availability on pastures and density fluctuations of local wolf packs. An average of 3 sheep (range = 1-18)were killed per attac k (n = 483), and 42% of the attacks involved killing of less than or equal to 2 sheep. Additionally, 21-113 sheep were killed or attacked in mass slau ghters which comprised 2.3% of the depredation events and 19% of the sheep lost. Depredations also resulted in 35% (n = 168) of sheep injured and 33% (n = 158) missing. Most sheep depredations occurred during the night, in pa stures interspersed with wood or vegetative cover, and involved free-rangin g flocks unattended by either the shepherd or guard dogs. High levels of co nflict occurred in localized areas of intensive sheep production; 6% of the affected farms and 8% of the affected municipalities accounted for 32% of the sheep lost to both wolves and dogs at the regional level. Compensation programs alone were not effective in reducing the conflict or in preventing illegal, private efforts to control wolf numbers. Improved husbandry shoul d be encouraged and facilitated through financial incentives and public edu cation.