FACTORS SHAPING POPULATION-DENSITIES AND INCREASE RATES OF UNGULATES IN BIALOWIEZA PRIMEVAL FOREST (POLAND AND BYELARUS) IN THE 19TH AND 20TH CENTURIES

Population dynamics of ungulates (European bison Bison. bonasus, elk A lces alces, red deer Cervus elaphus, roe deer Capreolus capreolus, wil d boar Sus scrofa, non-native fallow deer Dama dama, and cattle) were analysed in the Bialowieza Primeval Forest (BPF, 1250 km(2)), one of t he largest remaining tracts of ancient mixed and deciduous forests in the lowlands of Europe. Forty percent of BPF belongs to Poland, and 60 % to the Belarus Republic. Polish and Belarussian game departments inv entories of ungulate numbers (1946-1993) and archival data on censuses and hunting statistics (1798-1940) are presented. The recorded ranges of densities of native wild ungulates were: European bison 0-1.5 inds /km(2), elk 0-0.6, red deer 0-5.4, roe deer 0.6-4.8, and wild boar 0.2 -3.8 inds/km(2). Fallow deer were introduced in 1890 (maximum density reached in 1914 was 1.2 inds/km(2)) and were eradicated by 1920. Cattl e were traditionally pastured in the Forest, and its grazing impact wa s heaviest in 1880-1914 (maximum recorded density 6.7 inds/km(2)). In 1798-1993, the community of wild ungulates consisted of three to six s pecies, with total densities varying from < 2 to 14.4 inds/km(2) (65 t o 1180 kg of crude biomass per 1 km(2)). Roe deer, wild boar, and red deer were usually the dominants. However, in 1860-1971, cattle constit uted from 15% to 80% by numbers and from 37% to 87% by biomass of all ungulates in Bialowieza Forest. Data on population trends within a fiv e-species assemblage of native wild ungulates were subject to multiple regression analysis to determine the roles of predation (by wolves Ca nis lupus and lynxes Lynx lynx), competition, food, weather variables, and humans in shaping population densities and increase rates of ungu lates. Growth of the mean annual temperature had positive effect on de nsities of all ungulates, probably through improving food supply and f eeding conditions. Bison and elk were shaped by intra-and interspecifi c competition for food. Bison numbers have been significantly limited by humans, due to both uncontrolled exploitation in years of political instability and deliberate culling in years of protection. Red deer a nd roe deer were primarily shaped by predation from wolves and lynx, r espectively. Competition for food influenced red and roe deer when the y had erupted after predator extermination. Wild boar was influenced p redominantly by food availability, especially the highly variable crop s of oak seeds.