DEMOCRACY AND GRASS-ROOTS OPPOSITION IN EASTERN-EUROPE - HUNGARY AND RUSSIA COMPARED

The aim of the article is to show how the extent of democracy in two E astern European societies has a strong conditioning effect on the deve lopment of social movements. Hungary and Russia are chosen as contrast ing cases. The experience of environmental movements before and after the regime change is used as an illustration of grassroots movements. It is shown that environmental movements in Hungary are more numerous and more successful than those in Russia, and that this is linked to t he extent of support they have (or lack) from politicians, nonelected officials, and the media. In Hungary, although ecological issues are n ot central, politicians and environmental groups mostly co-operate, wh ereas in Russia the relationship is either hesitant or sometimes even hostile. In both countries, however, apparatchiks are generally a lot more opposed to grassroots groups, such as environmental ones, but the ir weaker position in Hungary compared with Russia cancels out this ef fect. Finally, the media in Hungary have been sympathetic to environme ntal issues and they are also supportive of the environmental movement s. In contrast, however, in Russia, after Yeltsin's arrival in power ' glasnost' has been largely reversed and the media have also been hosti le to environmental groups. In sum, the position of the media, politic ians and officials shapes the prospects for environmental movements an d is an index of the differing degree of democracy in the two societie s.