Positive illusions in golf: Empirical and conceptual analyses

The apparent prevalence and impact of cognitive biases (e.g., positive illu sions) during planning by golfers was examined in two studies. In Study I, club selections used by 171 golfers (133 men, 38 women; M Handicap = 20.8, SD = 8.6) for initial tee shots were compared with club selections used whe n golfers were offered a second ball to hit following a conservative (and r ealistic) plan for shot selection. Second shots, following the conservative plan, were vastly superior to those observed when golfers used their initi al plans. In addition, comparison of club selections for the conservative p lan to club selections used for the initial plan suggested that approximate ly 80% of the golfers may have used poor planning for their initial tee sho ts. In Study II, 184 golfers (155 men, 29 women, M Handicap = 22.4, SD = 8. 1) were randomly assigned to use their own planning strategy (Control group ) or to follow a realistic and conservative plan (Experimental group). In a ccord with hypotheses based on Study I, 83% of participants in the Control group demonstrated questionable planning when selecting clubs for their ini tial tee shots. Golfers in the: Experimental condition also hit significant ly better tee shots than their counterparts in the Control group. These res ults suggest that many golfers of diverse skill levels may use positive ill usions when planning their shots. Discussion includes proposed methods to c ounteract the potentially adverse consequences of cognitive biases on sport performance.