In many areas of histopathology a nominal category, such as a diagnosi
s of breast carcinoma, does not give enough information for the referr
ing clinician to make decisions about patient prognosis and treatment,
Therefore scoring and grading systems have been developed which provi
de additional information, This article reviews the principles behind
these systems with particular reference to the relationships between t
he natural clustering (or nonclustering) of cases and the imposition o
f arbitrary class boundaries on such distributions. The difference bet
ween real numbers and the ordinal categorical numeric labels, which ar
e often produced by histopathology scoring systems, is discussed. The
reproducibility of scoring and grading systems is reviewed and generic
suggestions are given for developing new systems and for their valida
tion.