EVOLUTION OF MATING-BEHAVIOR IN THE GENUS APIS AND AN ESTIMATE OF MATING FREQUENCY IN APIS-CERANA (HYMENOPTERA, APIDAE)

Four colonies of Apis cerana F. were analyzed with DNA markers to dete rmine the degree of polyandry in this species. The average observed pa ternity frequency was 18.0 (range, 14-27). the average worker relatedn ess 0.29, and the average effective paternity frequency 12.0. A. ceran a is therefore similar to A. mellifera and other species of Apis in th at the level of polyandry is extreme. A phylogeny of the genus was use d as the basis for a comparative analysis of mating behavior. This ana lysis suggests that the enlarged penile bulb, mucus glands, and excess sperm production found in the cavity nesting species (A. cerana, A. k oschevnikovi, and A. mellifera) are likely to be derived characters; w hereas the lack of mucus glands and reduced penile bulb observed in th e open-nesting species is likely to be basal.