LEVIATHAN AT BAY - CONSTITUTIONAL VERSUS POLITICAL CONTROLS ON GOVERNMENT

I integrate constitutional constraints in a model of electoral control of politicians. Two types of politicians compete for office: angels, who never misuse power, and knaves, who abuse delegated power. Politic al theory suggests that constitutional constraints and elections are s ubstitutes; I find a more complicated relationship. Elections sometime s substitute for constraints, while constraints complement and strengt hen electoral controls based on politicians' payoffs. Elections must w ork perfectly to generally allow constraints to be dispensed with. Kna ves might self-select out of politics with constitutional constraints, which consequently appear inconsistent with the observed character of politicians. (JEL H1, D72).