Coordinating transcription and text generation in working memory during composing: Automatic and constructive processes

Research evidence is reviewed to show (a) that transcription and working me mory processes constrain the development of composition skills In students with and without learning disabilities; and (b) that in turn other processe s constrain the development of transcription and working memory skills. The view of working memory as a resource-limited process is contrasted with a view of working memory as a resource-coordination process that integrates t ranscription and constructive processes, which may be on different time sca les, in real time. Theory-driven, research-validated interventions for tran scription are discussed with a focus on how training transcription transfer s to improved composition. Five theoretical explanations for why the spelli ng component of transcription is more difficult to learn than the word reco gnition component of reviewing are also considered with a focus on the inst ructional implications of each for improving spelling. Finally, a rationale is presented for directing writing instruction to the simultaneous goals o f (a) automaticity of low-level transcription and (b) high-level constructi on of meaning for purposeful communication.