Fundamental issues in wafer bonding

Semiconductor wafer bonding has increasingly become a technology of choice for materials integration in microelectronics, optoelectronics, and microel ectromechanical systems. The present overview concentrates on some basic is sues associated with wafer bonding such as the reactions at the bonding int erface during hydrophobic and hydrophilic wafer bonding, as well as during ultrahigh vacuum bonding. Mechanisms of hydrogen-implantation induced layer splitting (''smart-cut" and "smarter-cut" approaches) are also considered. Finally, recent developments in the area of so-called "compliant universal substrates" based on twist wafer bonding are discussed. (C) 1999 American Vacuum Society. [S0734-2101(99)06504-5].