Foundation-level dyslexia: Assessment and treatment.

It is supposed that there is an early, foundation stage in beginning readin g during which children acquire basic letter-sound knowledge, a capability for alphabetic processing, and a logographic sight vocabulary. An assessmen t of foundation processes was administered to Scottish children with readin g difficulties (n = 51) and to reading-level-matched controls (n = 56). The results suggested that the foundation is normally in place by the time a r eading age of about 7 years has been achieved. Foundation-level dyslexia is identifiable in children with reading difficulty whose reading ages fall b elow this level. Differing patterns of dyslexia were observed, depending on whether the primary effect was on letter-sound learning (literal dyslexia) , the acquisition of the alphabetic process (alphabetic dyslexia), or reten tion of a sight vocabulary (logographic dyslexia). Balanced dyslexia, in wh ich both alphabetic. and logographic functions were impaired, was also foun d. Some implications for assessment and treatment are discussed.