Social sanction and threat explanations of gender effects on direct and indirect aggression

The present study examined two explanations for gender differences in expre ssion of direct and indirect aggression. The social sanction model suggests that aggressor and target gender effects may be accounted for in terms of social sanctions against behaving aggressively; indirect aggression is the likely outcome of inhibitions against expression of direct aggression. The threat argument suggests that high levels of direct aggression in male-male dyads as well as apparent inhibitions against harming females might be acc ounted for by the fact that males are more threatening targets than are fem ales. Research participants completed a questionnaire measure of direct and indirect aggression twice, once with reference to their behavior toward a same-gender target and once with reference to their behavior toward an othe r-gender target. Although most direct aggression was reported by male aggre ssors toward male targets, gender of target did not relate to indirect aggr ession, Males reported approximately equal levels of indirect and direct ag gression. Although females reported using more indirect than direct aggress ion, they did not differ from males in their reports of the frequency of us e of indirect aggression. These results provided some support for both mode ls of gender effects on human aggression and suggest the appropriateness of a relatively complex model of gender effects on aggression. (C) 1999 Wiley -Liss, Inc.