The noradrenergic system in pathological anxiety: A focus on panic with relevance to generalized anxiety and phobias

Over the past three decades of psychiatric research, abnormalities in the n oradrenergic system have been identified in particular anxiety disorders su ch as panic disorder Simultaneously, neuroscience research on fear pathways and the stress response have delineated central functions for the noradren ergic system. This review focuses on the noradrenergic system in anxiety sp ectrum disorders such as panic disorder, generalized anxiety disorder, and phobias for the purpose of elucidating current conceptualizations of the pa thophysiologies. Neuroanatomic pathways that are theoretically relevant in anxiogenesis are discussed and the implications for treatment reviewed. (C) 1999 Society of Biological Psychiatry.