Cyanobacterial toxins, exposure routes and human health

The production of potent toxins by bloom-, scum- and mat-forming cyanobacte ria, in fresh-, brackish and marine waters, appears to be a global phenomen on. Cyanobacterial toxins can also be produced by cyanobacteria from terres trial sources. The range and number of known cyanobacterial toxins are incr easing apace as associated poisoning incidents are investigated, and increa singly powerful analytical methods are applied to complement toxicity-based studies on both natural samples and laboratory isolates of cyanobacteria. Water quality management to reduce toxic cyanobacterial mass developments, and schemes to mitigate the potential effects of cyanobacterial toxins, req uire an understanding of the occurrence and properties of the toxins and of the exposure routes via which the toxins present risks to hearth. Here, we review advances in the recognition of cyanobacterial toxins and their toxi city, and of the exposure routes with reference to human health, namely via skin contact, inhalation haemodialysis and ingestion (the oral route).