A meta-analytic study of social desirability distortion in computer-administered questionnaires, traditional questionnaires, and interviews

A meta-analysis of social desirability distortion compared computer questio nnaires with traditional paper-and-pencil questionnaires and face-to-face i nterviews in 61 studies (1967-1997; 673 effect sizes). Controlling for corr elated observations, a near-zero overall effect size was obtained for compu ter versus paper-and-pencil questionnaires. With moderators, there was less distortion on computerized measures of social desirability responding than on the paper-and-pencil measures, especially when respondents were alone a nd could backtrack. There was more distortion on the computer on other scal es, but distortion was small when respondents were alone, anonymous, and co uld backtrack. There was less distortion on computerized versions of interv iews than on face-to-face interviews. Research is needed on nonlinear patte rns of distortion, and on the effects of context and interface on privacy p erceptions and on responses to sensitive questions.