Determinants of democracy

A panel study of over 100 countries from 1960 to 1995 finds that improvemen ts in the standard of living predict increases in democracy, as measured by a subjective indicator of electoral rights. The propensity for democracy r ises with per capita GDP, primary schooling, and a smaller gap between male and female primary attainment. For a given standard of living, democracy t ends to fall with urbanization and with a greater reliance on natural resou rces. Democracy has little relation to country size but rises with the midd le-class share of income. The apparently strong relation of democracy to co lonial heritage mostly disappears when the economic variables are held cons tant. Similarly, che allowance for these economic variables weakens the int erplay between democracy and religious affiliation. However, negative effec ts from Muslim and non-religious affiliations remain intact.