Laser safety thresholds for cetaceans and pinnipeds

An increase in the use of oceanographic lidar has raised concern over laser safety for marine mammals. We were able to address some of these concerns by combining information about current laser safety standards, retinal dama ge mechanisms for humans, and research on eye anatomy for humans, cetaceans , and pinnipeds. To estimate the irradiance at the retina, the image size a t the retina and pupil diameter must be known. We estimate the smallest spo t size using retinal resolution or visual acuity far six species of cetacea ns and five species of pinnipeds. A sensitivity ratio was calculated for ea ch species using the ratio of the irradiance at the retina of the marine ma mmal to the irradiance at the retina of humans. The sensitivity ratio was u sed to suggest exposure limits for the various species. Because the human e ye is more sensitive than either the cetacean or pinniped eye, we conclude that laser energies that are eye-safe for humans will also be safe for mari ne mammals, and higher laser irradiances may be permissible if illumination of humans is avoided.