Expertise, models of learning and computer-based tutoring

In a wide and diverse range of contexts, from academic disciplines through to games and sports, analyses of what it takes to be judged an expert have established a number of common claims. In this paper, we identify and discu ss the theoretical significance of this research in relation to a formal, c omputational theory of expertise (EPAM). The main thrust of our paper is th e argument that the theory both helps to identify and explain theoretical l imitations on some influential approaches to computer-based tutoring, and o ffers a means of overcoming some of these. We argue that, without 'knowledg e-based' models of the learning process, attempts to develop effective, com puter-based tutoring systems have achieved limited progress towards the goa l of helping learners to construct links between their procedural knowledge and conceptual understanding. Current knowledge-based approaches to learne r modelling need to be developed in two main directions to reach this goal. First, they will have to integrate a theoretically sound account of the re lation between perception and memory (such as that developed within the EPA M approach) in order to build upon what has already been achieved to date i n relating processes of learning, memory and problem solving. Second they n eed an extended theory of declarative (or conceptual) knowledge and its rel ation to procedural skills. We illustrate how the EPAM model of expertise c an be exploited towards these ends, and draw out a number of implications f or the design and current limitations of computer-based tutoring systems. ( C) 2000 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.