Neurobiology of posttraumatic stress disorder

Recent advances on the neurobiology of posttraumatic stress disorder includ e: the utilization of functional brain imaging; the incorporation of cross- system research including neuroendocrine (hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal an d hypothalamic-pituitary-thyroid axes), neurochemical (corticotropin-releas ing factor, norepinephrine, serotonin, endogenous opiates), and neuroimmuno logical (humoral and cellular immunity) systems; the expansion beyond exclu sive study of combat veterans to include posttraumatic stress disorder pati ents suffering from noncombat traumas; and the development of animal models of traumatic stress.