Social security, economic growth, and the rise in elderly widows' independence in the twentieth century

The percentage of elderly widows living alone rose from 18% in 1940 to 62% in 1990, while the percentage living with adult children declined from 59% to 20%. This study finds that income growth, particularly increased Social Security benefits, was the single most important determinant of living arra ngements, accounting for nearly one-half of the increase in independent liv ing. Unlike researchers in earlier studies, we find no evidence that the ef fect of income became stronger over the period. Changes in age, race, immig rant status, schooling, and completed fertility explain a relatively small share of the changes in living arrangements.