Twenty-five years of the spiral of silence: A conceptual review and empirical outlook

Numerous studies have been conducted on the spiral of silence since Noelle- Neumann (1974) formulated the theory a quarter of a century ago. As a whole , these studies draw upon different conceptualizations, employ inconsistent operationalizations, and give short shrift to important: macroscopic varia bles. Such inconsistencies potentially account for substantial proportions of the variance in spiral of silence effects. This paper examines these thr ee areas in greater detail. First, we review key assumptions and theoretica l statements of the spiral of silence. Second, we examine how these concept ual issues translate into operational ones. Finally, we outline areas that have remained largely unexplored over the last 25 years. Specifically, me c ontend that spiral of silence studies in different:: cultures have failed t o take into account culture-specific variables that may mitigate the import ance of opinion perceptions as predictors of individual behavior or attitud es. In other words, cross-cultural differences are key factors in predictin g speaking out., the key dependent variable in spiral of silence research. As a result, we call for the return to a more macroscopic focus in spiral o f silence research.