Effortful control in early childhood: Continuity and change, antecedents, and implications for social development

The course, antecedents, and implications for social development of effortf ul control were examined in this comprehensive longitudinal study. Behavior al multitask batteries and parental ratings assessed effortful control at 2 2 and 33 months (N = 106). Effortful control functions encompassed delaying , slowing down motor activity, suppressing/initiating activity to signal, e ffortful attention,and lowering voice. Between 22 and 33 months, effortful control improved considerably, its coherence increased, it was stable, and it was higher for girls. Behavioral and parent-rated measures converged. Ch ildren's focused attention at 9 months, mothers' responsiveness at 22 month s, and mothers' self-reported socialization level all predicted children's greater effortful control. Effortful control had implications for concurren t social development. Greater effortful control at 22 months was linked to more regulated anger, and at 33 months, to more regulated anger and joy and to stronger restraint.