On the nature and direction of relationships between constructs and measures

Theory development typically focuses on relationships among theoretical con structs, placing little emphasis on relationships between constructs and me asures. In most cases, constructs are treated as causes of their measures. However, this causal Row is sometimes reversed, such that measures are view ed as causes of constructs. Procedures have been developed to identify and estimate models that specify constructs as causes or effects of measures. H owever, these procedures provide little guidance for determining a priori w hether constructs should be specified as causes or effects of their measure s. Moreover, these procedures address few of the possible causal structures by which constructs and measures may be related. This article develops pri nciples for specifying the direction and structure of relationships between constructs and measures. These principles are illustrated using examples f rom psychological, sociological, and organizational research.