A general and accurate finite element model for helical springs subject to
axial loads (extension or/and torsion) is developed in this paper. Due to t
he establishment of precise boundary conditions, only a slice of the wire c
ross-section needs to be modelled; hence, more accurate results can be achi
eved. An example application to a circular cross-sectional spring is analys
ed in detail. (C) 2000 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.