Rethinking "high stakes": Lessons from the United States and England and Wales

Based on fieldwork conducted in England, Wales, and two American states, th is paper suggests six themes about "high stakes testing." First, not all st akes are perceived to be equally high. Second, pressure to respond to a tes t comes from more than just formal stakes. Third, external pressure leads t o symbolic responses outside the classroom. Fourth, external pressure can b e useful for changing content taught. Fifth, external pressure is less effe ctive in changing instructional strategy than content taught. Sixth, the ef fects of stakes will depend on a variety of other policy factors.