Effects of sessile Protozoa on intracapsular oxygen tension and embryonic shell calcification in the muricid Chorus giganteus

Clusters of egg capsules deposited by some common marine Mollusca may suffe r problems of a low diffusive oxygen supply to the embryos they contain, es pecially if the capsules are exposed to hypoxic seawater or attachment and growth of marine biofouling organisms. The present study was undertaken to determine the effects of severe biofouling by sessile Protozoa on intracaps ular oxygen tension (IPO2) and the development of embryos contained in the egg capsules of the muricid snail Chorus giganteus. We also investigated th e effects of ambient oxygen tension (EPO2) on IPO2. The presence of sessile Protozoa attached to the outer wall of the egg capsules significantly redu ced the IPO2 compared to capsules not fouled by Protozoa. Clean capsules co ntaining embryos showed an IPO2 of about 105 mm Hg, compared with about 92 mm Hg for protozoan-fouled capsules when both were immersed in air-saturate d seawater at 12 degrees C. The embryos in capsules without Protozoa grew n ormally, hatching in about 70 d as veliconch larvae, whereas the developmen t of larvae in protozoan-fouled capsules showed impairment of shell formati on and delay in hatching for up to 5 mo. Pre-hatch embryos at 60 d measured about 922 mu m and had an ash content near 18 mu g embryo(-1); embryos in capsules covered by micro-organisms measured only about 783 pm, with an ash content of about 3 mu g embryo(-1) over the same time period. Our study su ggested that the lack of larval calcification observed in the presence of s essile Protozoa on the outer wall of the egg capsules was probably related to reduced IPO2. Similarly, any factor reducing oxygen supply to encapsulat ed embryos (i.e. exposure to water masses with low oxygen content, biofouli ng, reduced water movement) could impair embryonic development, a significa nt phenomenon thus far not reported in C. giganteus.