Electoral democracy, revolutionary politics and political violence: the emergence of Fascism in Italy, 1920-21

This study examines the determination of the Italian Fascists' extra-parlia mentary, pare-military, violent strategy. What were the effects of the soci alists' political strategy, relying on electoral democracy, on the creation and strategy of the Fascist Action Squads? A comparison among Italy's 69 p rovinces, based on quantitative and qualitative historical evidence reveals a distinct pattern in the Fascists' violence. They attacked mainly provinc es where the Socialists enjoyed the greatest electoral support. This patter n was a product of two historical processes: (a) the threat of the Socialis t party to the landlords' economic and political hegemony, and (b) the land lords' tradition of militant anti-worker organization which culminated in t heir alliance with the Fascists. The Fascists' struggle for, and takeover of, political power was not an imm anent historical necessity. It was first and foremost an anti-socialist rea ction. It was shaped both 'from below', by the political power and radicali sm of the PSI and the para-military capacity of the Fascist Squads; and 'fr om above', by the active support the Fascists received from the landlords a nd the state. Supported by organized landlords and blessed with the authori ties' benevolence, the Squads were able to destroy - physically and politic ally - the legitimately constituted provincial governments of the Socialist s. The alliance with the landlords determined the Squads' almost exclusive attacks on Socialist provincial strongholds that constituted the greatest t hreat to the landlords' interests, while provinces dominated by the ruling Liberal party were excluded from the Squads' path of 'punitive expeditions' .