Problems of powerlessness: psychological explanations of social inequalityand civil unrest in post-war America

This article concerns the emergence of psychological constructs of personal power and control in the United States during the 1960s and 1970s and the ways in which they contributed to contemporary political explanations of so cial unrest. While social scientists and politicians at the time saw this u nrest as a social problem that posed threats to social cohesion and stabili ty, they located its cause not in the power structure of society but in the individual's sense of his or her own powerlessness. The article discusses 'locus of control' as the central construct in new psychological explanatio ns of powerlessness which drew on personality theory and behavioural psycho logy. The first half of the article traces the rise of the self-managing su bject in behavioural psychology, identifying a key shift in conceptual, str ategic and technical emphases, away from using behavioural approaches to mo dify the behaviour of others and towards developing ways of enabling people to manage their own behaviour. In the second half it examines the ways in which locus of control and related constructs were used to account for the educational under-achievement and political militancy of poor, black people in the United States. These explanations implicated individual helplessnes s and a sense of powerlessness in black people as a major social problem in the USA during this period: as a threat not only to personal development b ut, in particular, to social stability. In the process of this analysis I a im to demonstrate that the deployment of these constructs did more than ref ormulate old social problems in new ways; it enabled new social problems to be identified for which these constructs could offer explanations and solu tions which both appealed to political authorities and helped to shape thei r conceptions of the 'problem'.