Semi-invasive and invasive procedures for the diagnosis and staging of lung cancer II - Bronchoscopic and surgical procedures

A variety of semi-invasive and invasive diagnostic procedures is available for the diagnosis and staging of lung cancer, including flexible fiberoptic bronchoscopy, transthoracic percutaneous needle biopsy and various surgica l procedures. An appropriate diagnostic strategy may be tailored for each c linical situation, depending on the size and location of the lesion, the pr esence of mediastinal lymphadenopathy and the availability of the different procedures. A review of the bronchoscopic and surgical procedures is prese nted, including indications, technique, yield, limitations, contraindicatio ns, and complications for each procedure.