Hierarchy

Dominance hierarchies (sometimes called "pecking orders") are virtually uni versal in social species, including humans. In most species and in ancestra l and early human societies, these hierarchies allocate scarce resources, i ncluding food and often access to females. Humans sometimes use hierarchies for these allocational purposes, but humans use hierarchies for productive purposes as well-as in firms, universities, and governments. Productive hi erarchies and dominance hierarchies share many features. As a result, peopl e, including students of human behavior, often confuse types of hierarchies . For example, the Communist Manifesto attributes features to productive hi erarchies that are actually characteristic of dominance hierarchies. Govern ment hierarchies are particularly confusing, as they have many features of both types. In modern societies with socially mandated monogamy and volunta ry attachment to hierarchies in the form of competitive labor markets, prod uctive hierarchies are generally useful for all members, and it is importan t not to confuse the two types, either in policy or in scientific analysis.