Review of methods to reduce livestock depredation II. Aversive conditioning, deterrents and repellents

The use of aversive conditioning, repellents and deterrents in the manageme nt of predator-livestock problems is evaluated based on a comprehensive lit erature review, contact with leading authorities and visits to areas with s imilar predation problems. The status of these management tools is reported and their applicability under Scandinavian conditions evaluated. Aversive conditioning usually involves treating baits with an emetic compound (usual ly lithium chloride), and has shown inconsistent and inconclusive results. Repellents and deterrents include physical, chemical and acoustic stimuli o r devices that cause predators to stop an unwanted behaviour or to retreat from an area. Chemical repellents are not particularly effective against co yotes but have been effective for wolverines and bears under some condition s (e.g. with the availability of untreated, alternative prey). Projectile r epellents give an immediate, positive result with bears, but their use is l imited. Visual and acoustic devices work well, but only for a limited time, as predators quickly habituate to these devices. To summarize, these metho ds generally show little promise in reducing livestock depredation on a lar ge-scale or long-term basis, especially under the conditions prevailing in Scandinavia.