Long-term effects in progeny of paternal environment and of gamete/embryo cryopreservation

In addition to gross malformations, many problems relating to the formation of gametes and embryos can generate, within a continuum of abnormalities, a number of problems that are less evident. On the basis of genetic and/or biochemical or cytological changes, these effects generally appear long aft er birth as functional difficulties that range from growth changes and alte red endocrine functions and cancer to very late behavioural disorders. Such problems may have effects on males and females before conception, on the e mbryo during gestation, and may also impact on the success of assisted repr oduction techniques. For this reason, we have examined the experimental and clinical data that indicate the long-term consequences, for progeny, of ia trogenic and toxic environmental factors on the male reproductive system, a nd in particular the effect that one specific condition-cryopreservation-ma y have on gametes and the conceptus. We then focus on the interpretation gi ven to these data which, in general, emphasize the need not only for furthe r experiments to help understand the mechanism of anomalies and increase th e level of vigilance in humans, but also to extend follow-up investigations in children.