Democratization backwards: The problem of third-wave democracies

Countries in the third wave of democratization have introduced competitive elections before establishing basic institutions of a modem state such as t he rule of law, institutions of civil society and the accountability of gov ernors. By contrast, countries in the first wave of democratization became modern states before universal suffrage was introduced. Because they have d emocratized backwards, most third-wave countries are currently incomplete d emocracies. Incomplete democracies can develop ill three different ways: co mpleting democratization; repudiating free elections and turning to an unde mocratic alternative; or falling into a low-level equilibrium trap in which the inadequacies of elites are matched by low popular demands and expectat ions. The significance of incomplete democratization is shown by analysing public opinion survey data from three new democracies varying in their pred ecessor regimes: the Russian Federation (a totalitarian past); the Czech Re public (both a democratic and a totalitarian past) and the Republic of Kore a (formerly an authoritarian military regime).