Representative sampling and sample preparation in biological environmentalmonitoring using spruce shoots

The design of sampling and sample processing has a tremendous effect on the analytical results from which conclusions are drawn with respect to the qu ality of the environment and any possible impact on human health. Large sca le environmental surveys need rigorous planning and extensive screening exp eriments to evaluate their boundary conditions. Representativeness and samp le homogeneity are highlighted here in the context of a long-term biologica l monitoring survey for trace elements using spruce shoots. Several aspects concerning the selection of samples, amount of material, material processi ng and sample preparation prior to chemical characterisation are illustrate d by selected examples.