Maternal care, gene expression, and the transmission of individual differences in stress reactivity across generations

Naturally occurring variations in maternal care alter the expression of gen es that regulate behavioral and endocrine responses to stress, as well as h ippocampal synaptic development. These effects form the basis for the devel opment of stable, individual differences in stress reactivity and certain f orms of cognition. Maternal care also influences the maternal behavior of f emale offspring, an effect that appears to be related to oxytocin receptor gene expression, and which forms the basis for the intergenerational transm ission of individual differences in stress reactivity. Patterns of maternal care that increase stress reactivity in offspring are enhanced by stressor s imposed on the mother. These findings provide evidence for the importance of parental care as a mediator of the effects of environmental adversity o n neural development.