The reciprocal effects of leisure time activities and intellectual functioning in older people: A longitudinal analysis

By using data from a representative longitudinal survey, the authors provid e strong evidence that complex leisure time activities increase intellectua l functioning for workers and nonworkers. Although the effects were relativ ely moderate, both the present article and its predecessor on the effects o f paid work (C. Schooler, Mulatu, & Oates, 1999) showed that, even in old a ge, carrying out complex tasks has a positive effect on intellectual proces ses. In both cases, initially high levels of intellectual functioning led t o high levels of environmental complexity, which in turn raised levels of i ntellectual functioning, thus providing a pathway contributing to the high correlation of intellectual functioning over a 20-year period in middle and late adulthood. The present findings indicate that even in old age carryin g out substantively complex tasks builds the capacity to deal with the inte llectual challenges such complex environments provide.