Control-related beliefs and depressive symptoms in clinic-referred children and adolescents: Developmental differences and model specificity

The contingency-competence-control (CCC) model links contingency and compet ence beliefs to perceived control and, in turn, to depression. However, a d evelopmental perspective suggests that noncontingency may be too abstract a concept to be directly tied to depression before adolescence. We tested th e CCC model and this developmental notion, using structural equation modeli ng, with 360 clinic-referred 8- to 17-year-olds. The CCC model fit the data well for the fall sample accounting for 46% of the variance in depression. Separate analyses by age group placed perceived contingency in the best-fi t model for adolescents (ages 12-17 years) but not for children (8-11 years ). This suggests that abstract cause-effect concepts may have more direct a ffective impact after the cognitive changes of adolescence (e.g., formal op erations) than before. Finally, the CCC model accounted for much more varia nce in depression than conduct problems, suggesting diagnostic specificity.