Sj. Heine et al., Divergent consequences of success and failure in Japan and North America: An investigation of self-improving motivations and malleable selves, J PERS SOC, 81(4), 2001, pp. 599-615
Self-enhancing and self-improving motivations were investigated across cult
ures. Replicating past research, North Americans who failed on a task persi
sted less on a follow-up task than those who succeeded. In contrast, Japane
se who failed persisted more than those who succeeded. The Japanese pattern
is evidence for a self-improving orientation: Failures highlight where cor
rective efforts are needed. Japanese who failed also enhanced the importanc
e and the diagnosticity of the task compared with those who succeeded, wher
eas North Americans did the opposite. Study 2 revealed that self-improving
motivations are specific to the tasks on which one receives feedback. Study
3 unpackaged the cultural differences by demonstrating that they are due,
at least in part, to divergent lay theories regarding the utility of effort
. Study 4 addressed the problem of comparing cultures on subjective Likert
scales and replicated the findings with a different measure.