Building better theory: Time and the specification of when things happen

In any investigation of a causal relationship between an X and a Y, the tim e when X and Y are measured is crucial for determining whether X causes Y, as well as the true strength of that relationship. Using past research and a review of current research, we develop a set of XY configurations that de scribe the main ways that causal relationships are represented in theory an d tested in research. We discuss the theoretical. methodological, and analy tical issues pertaining to when we measure X and Y and discuss the implicat ions of this analysis for constructing better organizational theories.