Organic chemistry of embalming agents in Pharaonic and Graeco-Roman mummies

Chemical treatments were an essential element of ancient Egyptian mummifica tion. Although the inorganic salt natron is recognized as having a central role as a desiccant(1), without the application of organic preservatives th e bodies would have decomposed in the humid environment of the tombs(2). Th e nature of the organic treatments remains obscure, because the ancient Egy ptians left no written record of the process. Secondary textual evidence fo r mummification is provided by Herodotus(3), Diodorus Siculus(4), Strabo(5) and Pliny(6). The most important account is that of Herodotus(3) (about 45 0 yr BC), although archaeological evidence shows that by this time the proc ess had declined significantly and the best results had been achieved centu ries before(7). His account mentions myrrh, cassia, palm wine, 'cedar oil' (still widely disputed(8-10)) and 'gum'; however, it is vague with respect to the specific natural products used. Here we report the results of chemic al investigations of a substantial collection of samples of tissues, wrappi ngs and 'resinous/bituminous' materials from provenanced and dated Egyptian mummies. We focused on examples of the 'classic' mummy-making culture of t he Pharaonic or dynastic period, from which we can begin to track the devel opment of mummification chronologically.