Ecological modernization and its critics: Assessing the past and looking toward the future

The theory of ecological modernization has received growing attention over the past decade, but in the process, it has been interpreted in conflicting and sometimes contradictory ways. In this article, we attempt to bring gre ater clarity to the discussion. Reviewing the works both by the theory's be st-known proponents and by its most outspoken critics, we note that difficu lties are created not just by the combining of theoretical predictions and policy prescriptions-a point that has already been noted in the literature- but also by the stark and highly significant differences in expectations be tween ecological modernization and most prevailing theories of society-envi ronment relationships. Perhaps in part because of these differences, disagr eements have often been expressed in stark, black-and-white terms. If the p roblems are to be resolved, there will be a need for greater theoretical pr ecision, developed in conjunction with empirical research that is more focu sed, more finely differentiated, and more rigorous.